1. Introduction

Nijgadh International Airport is a project of vital importance for Nepal. This is our national pride project. This will be a game-changing project for Nepal’s economic prosperity.

Rabindra Adhikari, Late Minister of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, Government of Nepal (Paudyal & Koirala, 2018) (Geschewski, 2021).

In this rapidly evolving world, deforestation and various anthropogenic activities contribute to the increase in global temperatures and the decline of biodiversity, impacting the link between people and surroundings. The human-environment relationship pertains to the interaction between humans and their natural and constructed surroundings. One of the important factors of development especially in developing and underdeveloped countries is infrastructure expansion which undermines this relationship. The community and the environment are entangled with the effects of unchecked growth and environmental deterioration during the process of development and economic growth. Building infrastructure has been one of the main causes of environmental change and biodiversity loss worldwide as a result of industrialisation and increased resource exploitation. Bad infrastructure can be as simple as choosing the wrong location. Even without accounting for the substantial environmental effects of the highways, the backbone of global infrastructure itself accounts for 5% of worldwide anthropogenic CO2 emissions. The ever-growing economy of overproduction and overconsumption, which worsens historical inequities and prejudice, is the main force behind infrastructure expansion. In other words, forest ecosystems are being degraded for rapid transport of goods. Exploitative labour is used to oppress people as more and more communities lose their means of subsistence as a result of their reliance on the forest (Rathi & Lal, 2023).

2. Overview of Nijgadh Biodiversity and Ecosystem before Construction

Kathgoan, Tangiya Basti and Matiyani tole, the livelihoods of all three communities rely significantly on the forest. The majority of people go to the forest in groups to graze cattle and gather firewood. and rely on non-timber forest products such Titepati, Rajbriksha, Sindhure, Kukurdaino, Bethe, Lahare, Ban-kurilo, Vyakur, Jibre Sag, Sim Sag, Jamun, Bel, Bayer, Neuro, Dundu Saag, Saranchi Saag, Poi Saag (GOECE, 2018). These play a significant role in these communities’ ability to generate revenue. During the rainy season, residents of the town and the surrounding area also gather mushrooms that grow beneath the sal trees.They are offered in the local marketplaces for Rs. 500 per kilogram. In the neighbourhood of each of the three settlements, there are wild animals. When questioned about wild creatures, all three settlements pointed to the area’s tiger and elephant threats (Rathi & Lal, 2023).

3. Environmental impact assessment (EIA)

Three scenarios of project impacts are assessed in the EIA Report.
• Forest vegetation loss in the 1stphase airport development: The first phase airport development with 3.6 km long single runway including peripheral and approach roads (86 ha) would require 1,084 ha area. Forest area to be cleared is 990 ha, having 328,904 trees. The loss of forest product from these trees would be gross 1.68 million cubic foot timber and 4,703 Chatta fuelwood valued at NPR 8.5 billion (US $ 77.3 million) at market price (Shah, 2019).
• Loss of forest vegetation in the 2nd phase airport development: Total area required for the full-fledged SIA in 2nd phase with capacity of serving 60 million passengers/year including airport city is 1,900 ha. EIA has estimated 1,641 ha forest land to be clear-felled. There will be permanent loss of 448.084 trees having gross 8.12 million cubic foot timber and 8,050 Chatta fuelwood. Its valuation at market price in 2018 was estimated to be NPR 14.9 billion (US $ 135.4 million) (Shah, 2019).
• Loss of forest vegetation in the whole ‘direct impact area’: Demarcated airport area is 8,045 ha, of which forest area occupies 7,582ha. EIA estimated 2.45 million standing trees (586,001 matured trees and 1,864,827 pole sized trees) having 36.9 million cubic foot timber and 39,062 Chatta fuelwood, currently valued at NPR 69.2 billion (US $ 629 million) (Shah, 2019).

4. EIA Report approval for implementation:

Local Consultant GEOCE prepared EIA Report based on TOR approved by then Ministry of Environment in 2011 and submitted to the Proponent MoCTA in March 2018. Despite technocratic problem in EIA report viz. informational weakness, insufficient analysis of impacts and inadequately proposed mitigation measures, Ministry of Forest and Environment approved the EIA Report in the last week of May 2018, just about 2 months from the date of report received. In general, approval of EIA report for implementation takes at least 6 months 9 months from the date of receipt (author’s personal experience). This indicates strong political influence on EIA as both proponent and the EIA approval agencies belong to government(Shah, 2019).  A case of environmental conflict related to the construction of Nijgadh International Airport is presented to demonstrate the complexity of environmental concerns(Upreti, 2021). While defining the contents and characteristics of new policies, only the voice of international organizations and donors is heard because those organizations support funding for the intended plans and programs afterwards (Rutt & Lund, 2014). Some scholars even argue that Nepal’s policy-making process is top-down (Gautam et al., 2004) and influenced by a handful of political leader and bureaucrats (Basnyat et al., 2018; Khatri, 2012).

5. Effects on the endangered species and local wildlife

Currently, the known distribution of rhinoceros in Nepal extends between the elevation range of 100 and 500 m (DNPWC, 2009; Pant et al., 2020b), consistent with our findings. Rhinoceroses are not likely to shift into higher elevations like some other species but instead appear trapped in small patches of suitable habitat at lower elevation. Our results indicate that the rhinoceros population in Nepal is likely to experience a moderate level of vulnerability to climate change given the predicted loss in suitable habitat under highest GHG emission scenario is 35% by 2070 due to the combined effects of climate and land use changes (Anacker et al., 2013). Despite the habitat constraints faced by rhinoceros in Nepal, the Government of Nepal has proposed the construction of Nijgadh International Airport in an area of 80.50 km2 in Kohalbi municipality of Bara district (Shah, 2019)a place where our model suggests that nearly 33% (26 km2) of the area occupied by the proposed airport is currently suitable for rhinoceros. Most of the proposed airport area (94.20%) is forest land including nearly 3 km2 of floodplains (Shah, 2019). This area is an important wildlife corridor adjacent to the extended area of PNP, a feeding ground for many mammals and an area frequently utilized by several threatened species including tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus)(Pant et al., 2021).

6. Soil, water, and air quality changes post construction

With large scale deforestation for airport construction, the soil losses its natural vegetation covers, leading to the higher risks of erosion. Compacted soil impairs root growth and water infiltration, affecting plant growth and the areas agricultural productivity. Construction materials, fuel, and chemical reduces from construction activities can alter soil composition, negatively impacting local flora, fauna, and potentially leeching into groundwater. Clearing vegetation and soil erosion can lead to sediment runoff into nearby rivers and stream, increasing turbidity. Chemicals like fuel, oils, and construction may seep into local water bodies. These contaminants can increase the concentration of harmful substances in water, affecting both aquatic life and human communities relying on these water sources. The clearing of forested area and construction activities release large amount of dust and particulate can contribute to respiratory issues for nearby communities and degrade local air quality. Construction vehicles and machinery emit carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide, contributing to local air pollution and greenhouse gas emission.

7. Conservation effort and mitigation plan

EIA has proposed the following mitigation measures to reduce impacts on physical and biological environment:
• Conventional good practices for management of natural drainage system, disposal of construction and other wastes, operation of crusher and batching plants, leakage of oil/grease and other hazardous materials, landscaping in the project area, and control of air, water and noise pollution during construction phase.
• Upstream erosion enhancement measures through river training, maintaining drainage channels in the project area, managing surface hydrology through minimum loss of forest cover and construction of wells/ditches north of the project area for groundwater recharge.
• EIA has recommended adopting ICAO ‘policies and practices’ related to environmental protection including air and noise pollution, and safety(Shah, 2019)
• Compensatory plantation for the loss of forest vegetation.
• Replacement of lost forestland: The forestland belongs to the Ministry of Forestry and Environment (MoFE) and the proponent is the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation. As per the Forest Act, 1993 the proponent must pay cash compensation for the loss of forestland to MoFE as well as compensatory plantation for the loss of vegetation.
• EIA has proposed protective, awareness and regulatory measures to reduce impacts of workforce and other visitors on local forest resources. These measures could discourage and control illegal entry to forest area or trapping/hunting wildlife or causing fire hazard in forest.
• ‘No horn’ zone to be regulated on access road to airport for reducing noise level and disturbance to wildlife.
• Adoption of ICAO guidelines and good practices to reduce Bird hazard.

Comment : EIA does not include valuation of ecosystem services the forest area provides to the community (7,487 people) living in the project area and its adjacent area as well as just over 37,000 households living in downstream area who get direct benefit through collaborative forests and irrigation schemes. Mitigation measures do not suggest any specific area for large scale compensatory plantation. Compensatory plantation program has been very weak in Nepal; plantations are either delayed or not complied with (Shah, 2004). A largescale compensatory plantation of this scale has not been done in Nepal. Even if plantation at this scale is done, it will not restore all kinds of ecosystem services provided by the current forest. All the species could not be practically planted, and moreover it takes many decades to build the species diversity and fully functioning forest ecosystem(Shah, 2019).

8. Public perception and activism around Nijgadh environment impacts

After the project’s Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was published in 2018, many expressed shock at the prospect of cutting over 2 million trees (A. Dhakal, 2018). Opposition formed among conservationists and environmental activists, especially in Kathmandu, and rallies and online campaigns were organised in the capital (K. D. Bhattarai, 2019b; Pro Public, 2019). The SIA project is not only one of the most expensive projects ever undertaken in Nepal (with an estimated cost of USD 6.56 billion(Shah, 2019)), but also one of the most controversial, due to its immense socio-environmental impact. Although it has been in planning for 25 years, there is no scientific research on the project, apart from a paper by Shah (2019), which critically analyses the project’s EIA. With my study, I hope to take a first step towards filling this gap, especially with regard to community concerns. Work by the scholars, journalists, and activists highlights social and environmental injustice resulting from aviation in the global south and global north, as well as the contributions of local and global environmental justice moments to stop the growth of the industry. Between 2018 and 2023, the global; atlas of environmental justice (EJAtlas, hereafter), which is a collaborative online mapping platform, recorded 160 cases of protest and mobilization against new airports or airport expansion worldwide(Ittner et al., 2024).

9. Summary and Conclusion

The proposed airport area is a home to numerous species including 700 species of birds, 23 endangered flora and 22 endangered wildlife species. The area also lies proximity to Parsa National Park, which protects endangered wildlife including Bengal Tiger and Asiatic Elephant. Parsa particularly accounts for 18 of 235 (7.7%) of the tiger population in Nepal. Environmentalists predict that the destruction of such a large number of trees may lead to the severe flooding in BirgunjGadhimaiGaur and Kalaiya area as a result of the forests not being able to absorb 650 million cubic meter of rainwater. As a solution to the destruction of forests, Nepali government has been pointing out an idea of the compensatory plantation. During an interview with BBC World Service on his visit to the United Kingdom in June 2019, Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli said, “if we cut 2.5 million trees, we can plant 5 million of them by acquiring necessary lands”. Similarly, Environmental Management Planning (EMP) by GEOCE, the company that prepared EIA has proposed a plan for afforestation at a ratio of 1:25. Meanwhile, the stakeholder committee argues that the cost of plantation (US$118 million) would be a lot more than allocated in the EIA (US$2.26 million). The proposed airport vicinity has a higher water table which increases the chances of arsenic deposition at the downstream overtime, as the airport-activity increases. The biogeochemical cycle is also very rapid in the area. The project area is a heavily forested area and the forest is known to be the last remaining native hardwood forest in the eastern Terai that was the reason for facing disapproval nationally and internationally, particularly over the environmental concern. The Environmental Impact Assessment showed that more than 2 million trees; scattered around the area of 8,045 hectares (19,880 acres) is expected to be cut down, preventing 22,500 tons of carbon from being sequestered every year. On 6 December 2019, the Supreme Court of Nepal halted the construction of airport after a group of lawyers filed a public interest litigation (PIL) citing the improper preparation of EIA. In 2021, the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal (CAAN) allocated Rs. 300 million to revise the master plan for the Nijgadh airport project. However, on March 26, 2022, a final court verdict nullified all government decisions regarding the airport’s construction. . If Nijgadh remains the chosen site, the court urged the establishment of a construction site with minimal impact on forest land Campaigners for the Nijgadh International Airport argue that the construction of a well-equipped airport in Nijgadh will ease traffic pressure for at least the next 50 years. Once fully operational, this airport is projected to accommodate up to 60 million passengers annually. This is why members of the expert group emphasise referring to Nijgadh International Airport as a ‘primary airport.

The government has decided to proceed with the construction of the controversial Nijgadh International Airport. In the fiscal year 2023/24 budget, the government declared its commitment to concluding the preparatory activities for the Nijgadh International Airport project within the year. These activities include environmental impact assessments, settlement relocation, compensation distribution, and land conservation.

Reference

Gautam, A. P., Shivakoti, G. P., & Webb, E. L. (2004). A review of forest policies, institutions, and changes in the resource condition in Nepal. International Forestry Review, 6(2), 136–148.

Geschewski, H. (2021). “They only talk about the trees”-An analysis of relations of power and justice in the (de) construction of Nepal’s Second International Airport. Master Thesis Series in Environmental Studies and Sustainability Science.

Ittner, I., Sharma, S., Khambule, I., & Geschewski, H. (2024). Contested Airport Land: Social-Spatial Transformation and Environmental Injustice in Asia and Africa. Taylor & Francis.

Pant, G., Maraseni, T., Apan, A., & Allen, B. L. (2021). Predicted declines in suitable habitat for greater one‐horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) under future climate and land use change scenarios. Ecology and Evolution, 11(24), 18288–18304.

Rathi, N., & Lal, A. C. (2023). Understanding Human-Environment Relationship of Local Communities: A Case Study of Nijgadh International Airport.

Rutt, R. L., & Lund, J. F. (2014). What role for government? The promotion of civil society through forestry‐related climate change interventions in post‐conflict Nepal. Public Administration and Development, 34(5), 406–421.

Shah, S. G. (2019). An Analysis of EIA Report of the Second International Airport Project, Nepal. Hydro Nepal: Journal of Water, Energy & Environment, 24.

Upreti, B. R. (2021). Nepal: Reflections on the environmental and human security debate. In Handbook of Security and the Environment (pp. 212–227). Edward Elgar Publishing.

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Article by Gita Khatiwada

Disclaimer: This article was written by Gita Khatiwada and has not been reviewed by Nijgadh News. All rights to this article belong to Gita Khatiwada.

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